Historiographic Metafiction Essay

The frontiers of a book are never clear-cut: beyond the title, the first lines, and the last full-stop, beyond its internal configuration and its autonomous form, it is caught up in a system of references to other books, other texts, other sentences: it is a node within a network. -Foucault What we tend to call postmodernism in literature today is usually characterized by intense self-reflexivity and overtly parodic intertextuality. In fiction this means that it is usually metafiction that is equated with the postmodern. Given the scarcity of precise definitions of this problematic period designation, such an equation is often accepted without question. What I would like to argue is that, in the interests of precision and consistency, we must add something else to this definition: an equally self-conscious dimension of history. My model here is postmodern architecture, that resolutely parodic recalling of the history of architectural forms and functions. The theme of the 1980 Venice Biennale, which introduced postmodernism to the architectural world, was â€Å"The Presence of the Past. † The term postmodernism, when used in fiction, should, by analogy, best be reserved to describe fiction that is at once metafictional and historical in its echoes of the texts and contexts of the past. In order to distinguish this paradoxical beast from traditional historical fiction, I would like to label it â€Å"historiographic metafiction. † The category of novel I am thinking of includes One Hundred Years of Solitude, Ragtime, The French Lieutenant’s Woman, and The Name of the Rose. All of these are popular and familiar novels whose metafictional self-reflexivity (and intertextuality) renders their implicit claims to historical veracity somewhat problematic, to say the least. 3 LINDA HUTCHEON In the wake of recent assaults by literary and philosophical theory on modernist formalist closure, postmodern American fiction, in particular, has sought to open itself up to history, to what Edward Said (The World) calls the â€Å"world. † But it seems to have found that it can no longer do so in any innocent way: the certainty of direct reference of the historical novel or even the nonfictional novel is gone. So is the certainty of self-reference implied in the Borgesian claim that both literature and the world are equally fictive realities. The postmodern relationship between fiction and history is an even more complex one of interaction and mutual implication. Historiographic metafiction works to situate itself within historical discourse without surrendering its autonomy as fiction. And it is a kind of seriously ironic parody that effects both aims: the intertexts of history and fiction take on parallel (though not equal) status in the parodic reworking of the textual past of both the â€Å"world† and literature. The textual incorporation of these intertextual past(s) as a constitutive structural element of postmodernist fiction functions as a formal marking of historicity-both literary and â€Å"worldly. † At first glance it would appear that it is only its constant ironic signaling of difference at the very heart of similarity that distinguishes postmodern parody from medieval and Renaissance imitation (see Greene 17). For Dante, as for E. L. Doctorow, the texts of literature and those of history are equally fair game. Nevertheless, a distinction should be made: â€Å"Traditionally, stories were stolen, as Chaucer stole his; or they were felt to be the common property of a culture or community †¦ These notable happenings, imagined or real, lay outside language the way history itself is supposed to, in a condition of pure occurrence† (Gass 147). Today, there is a return to the idea of a common discursive â€Å"property† in the embedding of both literary and historical texts in fiction, but it is a return made problematic by overtly metafictional assertions of both history and literature as human constructs, indeed, as human illusions-necessary, but none the less illusory for all that. The intertextual parody of historiographic metafiction enacts, in a way, the views of certain contemporary historiographers (see Canary and Kozicki): it offers a sense of the presence of the past, but this is a past that can only be known from its texts, its traces-be they literary or historical. Clearly, then, what I want to call postmodernism is a paradoxical cultural phenomenon, and it is also one that operates across many traditional disciplines. In contemporary theoretical discourse, for instance, we find puzzling contradictions: those masterful denials of mastery, totalizing negations of totalization, continuous attest4 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION ings of discontinuity. In the postmodern novel the conventions of both fiction and historiography are simultaneously used and abused, installed and subverted, asserted and denied. And the double (literary/historical) nature of this intertextual parody is one of the major means by which this paradoxical (and defining) nature of postmodernism is textually inscribed. Perhaps one of the reasons why there has been such heated debate on the definition of postmodernism recently is that the implications of the doubleness of this parodic process have not been fully examined. Novels like The Book of Daniel or The Public Burning-whatever their complex intertextual layering-can certainly not be said to eschew history, any more than they can be said to ignore either their moorings in social reality (see Graff 209) or a clear political intent (see Eagleton 61). Historiographic metafiction manages to satisfy such a desire for â€Å"worldly† grounding while at the same time querying the very basis of the authority of that grounding. As David Lodge has put it, postmodernism short-circuits the gap between text and world (239-4 0 ) . Discussions of postmodernism seem more prone than most to confusing self-contradictions, again perhaps because of the paradoxical nature of the subject itself. Charles Newman, for instance, in his provocative book The Post-Modern Aura, begins by defining postmodern art as a â€Å"commentary on the aesthetic history of whatever genre it adopts† (44). This would, then, be art which sees history only in aesthetic terms (57). However, when postulating an American version of postmodernism, he abandons this metafictional intertextual definition to call American literature a â€Å"literature without primary influences,† â€Å"a literature which lacks a known parenthood,† suffering from the â€Å"anxiety of non-influence† (87). As we shall see, an examination of the novels of Toni Morrison, E. L. Doctorow, John Barth, Ishmael Reed, Thomas Pynchon, and others casts a reasonable doubt on such pronouncements. On the one hand, Newman wants to argue that  postmodernism at large is resolutely parodic; on the other, he asserts that the American postmodern deliberately puts â€Å"distance between itself and its literary antecedents, an obligatory if occasionally conscience-stricken break with the past† (172). Newman is not alone in his viewing of postmodern parody as a form of ironic rupture with the past (see Thiher 214), but, as in postmodernist architecture, there is always a paradox at the heart of that â€Å"post†: irony does indeed mark the difference from the past, but the intertextual echoing simultaneously works to affirm-textually and hermeneutically-the connection with the past. When that past is the literary period we now seem to label as 5 LINDA HUTCHEON modernism, then what is both instated and then subverted is the notion of the work of art as a closed, self-sufficient, autonomous object deriving its unity from the formal interrelations of its parts. In its characteristic attempt to retain aesthetic autonomy while still returning the text to the â€Å"world,† postmodernism both asserts and then undercuts this formalistic view. But this does not necessitate a return to the world of â€Å"ordinary reality,† as some have argued (Kern 216); the â€Å"world† in which the text situates itself is the â€Å"world† of discourse, the â€Å"world† of texts and intertexts. This â€Å"world† has direct links to the world of empirical reality, but it is not itself that empirical reality. It is a contemporary critical truism that realism is really a set of conventions, that the representation of the real is not the same as the real itself. What historiographic metafiction challenges is both any naive realist concept of representation and any equally naive textualist or formalist assertions of the total separation of art from the world. The postmodern is selfconsciously art â€Å"within the archive† (Foucault 92), and that archive is both historical and literary. In the light of the work of writers such as Carlos Fuentes, Salman Rushdie, D. M. Thomas,John Fowles, Umberto Eco, as well as Robert Coover, E. L. Doctorow, John Barth, Joseph Heller, Ishmael Reed, and other American novelists, it is hard to see why critics such as Allen Thiher, for instance, â€Å"can think of no such intertextual foundations today† as those of Dante in Virgil (189)’ Are we really in the midst of a crisis of faith in the â€Å"possibility of historical culture† (189)? Have we ever not been in such a crisis? To parody is not to destroy the past; in fact, to parody is both to enshrine the past and to question it. And this is the postmodern paradox. The theoretical exploration of the â€Å"vast dialogue† (Calinescu, 169) between and among literatures and histories that configure postmodernism has, in part, been made possible by Julia Kristeva’s early reworking of the Bakhtinian notions of polyphony, dialogism, and heteroglossia-the multiple voicings of a text. Out of these ideas she developed a more strictly formalist theory of the irreducible plurality of texts within and behind any given text, thereby deflecting the critical focus away from the notion of the subject (here, the author) to the idea of textual productivity. Kristeva and her colleagues at Tel Quel in the late sixties and early seventies mounted a collective attack on the founding subject (alias: the â€Å"romantic† cliche of the author) as the original and originating source of fixed and fetishized meaning in the text. And, of course, this also put into question the entire notion of the â€Å"text† as an autonomous entity, with immanent meaning. 6 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION In America a similar formalist impulse had provoked a similar attack much earlier in the form of the New Critical rejection of the â€Å"intentional fallacy† (Wimsatt). Nevertheless, it would seem that even though we can no longer talk comfortably of authors (and sources and influences), we still need a critical language in which to discuss those ironic allusions, those re-contextualized quotations, those double-edged parodies both of genre and of specific works that proliferate in modernist and postmodernist texts. This, of course, is where the concept of intertextuality has proved so useful. As later defined by Roland Barthes (Image 160) and Michael Riffaterre (142-43), intertextuality replaces the challenged authortext relationship with one between reader and text, one that situates the locus of textual meaning within the history of discourse itself. A literary work can actually no longer be considered original; if it were, it could have no meaning for its reader. It is only as part of prior discourses that any text derives meaning and significance. Not surprisingly, this theoretical  redefining of aesthetic value has coincided with a change in the kind of art being produced. Postmodernly parodic composer George Rochberg, in the liner notes to the Nonesuch recording of his String Quartet no. 3 articulates this change in these terms: â€Å"I have had to abandon the notion of ‘originality,’ in which the personal style of the artist and his ego are the supreme values; the pursuit of the one-idea, uni-dimensional work and gesture which seems to have dominated the esthetics of art in the aoth century; and the received idea that it is necessary to divorce oneself from the past. â€Å"In the visual arts too, the works of Shusaku Arakawa, Larry Rivers, Tom Wesselman, and others have brought about, through parodic intertextuality (both aesthetic and historical), a real skewing of any â€Å"romantic† notions of subjectivity and creativity. As in historiographic metafiction, these other art forms parodically cite the intertexts of both the â€Å"world† and art and, in so doing, contest the boundaries that many would unquestioningly use to separate the two. In its most extreme formulation, the result of such contesting would be a â€Å"break with every given context, engendering an infinity of new contexts in a manner which is absolutely illimitable† (Derrida 185). While postmodernism, as I am defining it here, is perhaps somewhat less promiscuously extensive, the notion of parody as opening the text up, rather than closing it down, is an important one: among the many things that postmodern intertextuality challenges are both closure and single, centralized meaning. Its willed and willful provisionality rests largely upon its acceptance of the inevitable textual infiltration of prior discursive 7 LINDA HUTCHEON practices. Typically contradictory, intertextuality in postmodern art both provides and undermines context. In Vincent B. Leitch’s terms, it â€Å"posits both an uncentered historical enclosure and an abysmal decentered foundation for language and textuality; in so doing, it exposes all contextualizations as limited and limiting, arbitrary and confining, self-serving and authoritarian, theological and political. However paradoxically formulated,  intertextuality offers a liberating determinism† (162). It is perhaps clearer now why it has been claimed that to use the term intertextuality in criticism is not just to avail oneself of a useful conceptual tool: it also signals a â€Å"prise de position, un champ de reference† (Angenot 122). But its usefulness as a theoreticalframework that is both hermeneutic and formalist is obvious in dealing with historiographic metafiction that demands of the reader not only the recognition of textualized traces of the literary and historical past but also the awareness of what has been done-through irony-to those traces. The reader is forced to acknowledge not only the inevitable textuality of our knowledge of the past, but also both the value and the limitation of that inescapably discursive form of knowledge, situated as it is â€Å"between presence and absence† (Barilli). halo Calvina’s Marco Polo in Invisible Cities both is and is not the historical Marco Polo. How can we, today, â€Å"know† the Italian explorer? We can only do so by way of texts-including his own (Il Milione) , from which Calvino parodically takes his frame tale, his travel plot, and his characterization (Musarra 141). Roland Barthes once defined the intertext as â€Å"the impossibility of living outside the infinite text† (Pleasure 36), thereby making intertextuality the very condition of textuality. Umberto Eco, writing of his novel The Name of the Rose, claims: â€Å"1 discovered what writers have always known (and have told us again and again): books always speak of other books, and every story tells a story that has already been told† (20). The stories that The Name of the Rose retells are both those of literature (by Arthur Conan Doyle, Jorge Luis Borges, James Joyce, Thomas Mann, T.S. Eliot, among others) and those of history (medieval chronicles, religious testimonies). This is the parodically doubled discourse of postmodernist intertextuality. However, this is not just a doubly introverted form of aestheticism: the theoretical implications of this kind of historiographic metafiction coincide with recent historiographic theory about the nature of history writing as narrativization (rather than representation) of the past and about the nature of the archive as the textualized remains of history (see White, â€Å"The Question†). 8 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION In other words, yes, postmodernism manifests a certain introversion, a self-conscious turning toward the form of the act of writing itself; but it is also much more than that. It does not go so far as to â€Å"establish an explicit literal relation with that real world beyond itself,† as some have claimed (Kirernidjian 238). Its relationship to the â€Å"worldly† is still on the level of discourse, but to claim that is to claim quite a lot. After all, we can only â€Å"know† (as opposed to â€Å"experience†) the world through our narratives (past and present) of it, or so postmodernism argues. The present, as well as the past, is always already irremediably textualized for us (Belsey 46), and the overt intertextuality of historiographic metafiction serves as one of the textual signals of this postmodern realization. Readers of a novel like Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five do not have to proceed very far before picking up these signals. The author is identified on the title page as â€Å"a fourth-generation German-American now living in easy circumstances on Cape Cod (and smoking too much), who, as an American infantry scout hors de combat, as a prisoner of war, witnessed the fire-bombing of Dresden, Germany, ‘The Florence of the Elbe,’ a long time ago, and survived to tell the tale. This is a novel somewhat in the telegraphic schizophrenic manner of tales of the planet Tralfamadore, where the flying saucers come from. Peace. † The character, Kurt Vonnegut, appears in the novel, trying to erase his memories of the war and of Dresden, the destruction of which he saw from â€Å"Slaughterhouse-Five,† where he worked as a POW. The novel itself opens with: â€Å"All this happened, more or less. The war parts, anyway, are pretty much true† (7). Counterpointed to this historical context, however, is the (metafictionally marked) Billy Pilgrim, the optometrist who helps correct defective vision-including his own, though it takes the planet Tralfamadore to give him his new perspective. Billy’s fantasy life acts as an allegory of the author’s own displacements and postponements (i. e. , his other novels) that prevented him from writing about Dresden before this, and it is the intratexts of the novel that signal this allegory: Tralfamadore itself is from Vonnegut’s The Sirens of Titan, Billy’s home in Illium is from Player Piano, characters appear from Mother Night and God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater. The intertexts, however, function in similar ways, and their provenience is again double: there are actual historical intertexts (documentaries on Dresden, etc.), mixed with those of historical fiction (Stephen Crane, Celine). But there are also structurally and thematically connected allusions: to Hermann Hesse’s Journey to the East and to various works of science fiction. Popular 9 LINDA HUTCHEON and high-art intertexts mingle: Valley of the Dolls meets the poems of William Blake and Theodore Roethke. All are fair game and all get re-contextualized in order to challenge the imperialistic (cultural and political) mentalities that bring about the Dresdens of history. Thomas Pynchon’s V. uses double intertexts in a similarly â€Å"loaded† fashion to formally enact the author’s related theme of the entropic destructiveness of humanity. Stencil’s dossier, its fragments of the texts of history, is an amalgam of literary intertexts, as if to remind us that â€Å"there is no one writable ‘truth’ about history and experience, only a series of versions: it always comes to us ‘stencillized'† (Tanner 172). And it is always multiple, like V’s identity. Patricia Waugh notes that metafiction such as Slaughterhouse-Five or The Public Burning â€Å"suggests not only that writing history is a fictional act, ranging events conceptually through language to form a world-model, but that history itself is invested, like fiction, with interrelating plots which appear to interact independently of human design† (48-49). Historiographic metafiction is particularly doubled, like this, in its inscribing of both historical and literary intertexts. Its specific and general recollections of the forms and contents of history writing work to familiarize the unfamiliar through (very familiar) narrative structures (as Hayden White has argued [â€Å"The Historical Text,† 49-50]), but its metafictional selfreflexivity works to render problematic any such familiarization. And the reason for the sameness is that both real and imagined worlds come to us through their accounts of them, that is, through their traces, their texts. The ontological line between historical past and literature is not effaced (see Thiher 190), but underlined. The past really did exist, but we can only â€Å"know† that past today through its texts, and therein lies its connection to the literary. If the discipline of history has lost its privileged status as the purveyor of truth, then so much the better, according to this kind of modern historiographic theory: the loss of the illusion of transparency in historical writing is a step toward intellectual self-awareness that is matched by metafiction’s challenges to the presumed transparency of the language of realist texts. When its critics attack postmodernism for being what they see as ahistorical (as do Eagleton, Jameson, and Newman), what is being referred to as â€Å"postrnodern† suddenly becomes unclear, for surely historiographic metafiction, like postmodernist architecture and painting, is overtly and resolutely historical-though, admittedly, in an ironic and problematic way that acknowledges that history is not the transparent record of any sure â€Å"truth. † Instead, such fiction 10. HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION corroborates the views of philosophers of history such as Dominick LaCapra who argue that â€Å"the past arrives in the form of texts and textualized remainders-memories, reports, published writings, archives, monuments, and so forth† (128) and that these texts interact with one another in complex ways. This does not in any way deny the value of history-writing; it merely redefines the conditions of value in somewhat less imperialistic terms. Lately, the tradition of narrative history with its concern â€Å"for the short time span, for the individual and the event† (Braudel 27), has been called into question by the Annales School in France. But this particular model of narrative history was, of course, also that of the realist novel. Historiographic metafiction, therefore, represents a challenging of the (related) conventional forms of fiction and history through its acknowledgment of their inescapable textuality. As Barthes once remarked, Bouvard and Pecuchet become the ideal precursors of the postmodernist writer who â€Å"can only imitate a gesture that is always anterior, never original. His only power is to mix writings, to counter the ones with the others, in such a way as never to rest on any of them† (Irnage 146). The formal linking of history and fiction through the common denominators of intertextuality and narrativity is usually offered not as a reduction, as a shrinking of the  scope and value of fiction, but rather as an expansion of these. Or, if it is seen as a limitation-restricted to the always already narrated-this tends to be made into the primary value, as it is in Lyotard’s â€Å"pagan vision,† wherein no one ever manages to be the first to narrate anything, to be the origin of even her or his own narrative (78). Lyotard deliberately sets up this â€Å"limitation† as the opposite of what he calls the capitalist position of the writer as original creator, proprietor, and entrepreneur of her or his story. Much postmodern writing shares this implied ideological critique of the assumptions underlying â€Å"romantic† concepts of author and text, and it is parodic intertextuality that is the major vehicle of that critique. Perhaps because parody itself has potentially contradictory ideological implications (as â€Å"authorized transgression,† it can be seen as both conservative and revolutionary [Hutcheon 69-83]), it is a perfect mode of criticism for postmodernism, itself paradoxical in its conservative installing and then radical contesting of conventions. Historiographic metafictions, like Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude, Gunter Grass’s The Tin Drurn, or Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children (which uses both of the former as intertexts), employ parody not only to restore history and memory in the face of the distortions of the â€Å"history of forgetting† (Thiher 11 LINDA HUTCHEON 202), but also, at the same time, to put into question the authority of any act of writing by locating the discourses of both history and fiction within an ever-expanding intertextual network that mocks any notion of either single origin or simple causality. When linked with satire, as in the work of Vonnegut, V. Vampilov, Christa Wolf, or Coover, parody can certainly take on more precisely ideological dimensions. Here, too, however, there is no direct intervention in the world: this is writing working through other writing, other textualizations of experience (Said Beginnings 237). In many cases intertextuality may well be too limited a term to describe this process; interdiscursivity would perhaps be a more accurate term for the collective modes of discourse from which the postmodern parodically draws: literature, visual arts, history, biography, theory, philosophy,  psychoanalysis, sociology, and the list could go on. One of the effects of this discursive pluralizing is that the (perhaps illusory but once firm and single) center of both historical and fictive narrative is dispersed. Margins and edges gain new value. The â€Å"ex-centric†-as both off-center and de-centeredgets attention. That which is â€Å"different† is valorized in opposition both to elitist, alienated â€Å"otherness† and also to the uniformizing impulse of mass culture. And in American postmodernism, the â€Å"different† comes to be defined in particularizing terms such as those of nationality, ethnicity, gender, race, and sexual orientation. Intertextual parody of canonical classics is one mode of reappropriating and reformulating-with significant changes-the dominant white, male, middle-class, European culture. It does not reject it, for it cannot. It signals its dependence by its use of the canon, but asserts its rebellion through ironic abuse of it. As Edward Said has been arguing recently (â€Å"Culture†), there is a relationship of mutual interdependence between the histories of the dominators and the dominated. American fiction since the sixties has been, as described by Malcolm Bradbury (186), particularly obsessed with its own pastliterary, social, and historical. Perhaps this preoccupation is (or was) tied in part to a need to fmd a particularly American voice within a culturally dominant Eurocentric tradition (D’haen 216). The United States (like the rest of North and South America) is a land of immigration. In E. L. Doctorow’s words, â€Å"We derive enormously, of course, from Europe, and that’s part of what Ragtime is about: the means by which we began literally, physically to lift European art and architecture and bring it over here† (in Trenner 58). This is also part of what American historiographic metafiction in general is â€Å"about. † Critics have discussed at length the parodic 12 HISTORIOGRAPHIC METAFICTION intertexts of the work of Thomas Pynchon, including Conrad’s Heart ofDarkness (McHale 88) and Proust’s first-person confessional form (Patteson 37-38) in V. In particular, The Crying of Lot 49 has been seen as directly linking the literary parody ofJacobean drama with the selectivity and subjectivity of what we deem historical â€Å"fact† (Bennett). Here the postmodern parody operates in much the same way as it did in the literature of the seventeenth century, and in both Pynchon’s novel and the plays he parodies (John Ford’s ‘Tis Pity She’s a Whore, John Webster’s The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi, and Cyril Tourneur’s The Revenger’s Tragedy, among others), the intertextual â€Å"received discourse† is firmly embedded in a social commentary about the loss of relevance of traditional values in contemporary life (Bennett). Just as powerful and even more outrageous, perhaps, is the parody of Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol in Ishmael Reed’s The Terrible Twos, where political satire and parody meet to attack white Euro-centered ideologies of domination. Its structure of â€Å"A Past Christmas† and â€Å"A Future Christmas† prepares us for its initial Dickensian invocations-first through metaphor (â€Å"Money is as tight as Scrooge† [4]) and then directly: â€Å"Ebenezer Scrooge towers above the Washington skyline, rubbing his hands and greedily peering over his spectacles† (4). Scrooge is not a character, but a guiding spirit of 1980 America, one that attends the inauguration of the president that year. The novel proceeds to update Dickens’ tale. However, the rich are still cozy and comfortable (â€Å"Regardless of how high inflation remains, the wealthy will have any kind of Christmas they desire, a spokesman for Neiman-Marcus announces† [5]); the poor are not. This is the 1980 replay of â€Å"Scrooge’s winter, ‘as mean as ajunkyard dog† (32). The â€Å"Future Christmas† takes place after monopoly capitalism has literally captured Christmas following a court decision which has granted exclusive rights to Santa Claus to one person and one company. One strand of the complex plot continues the Dickensian intertext: the American president-a vacuous, alcoholic, ex-(male) model-is reformed by a visit from St. Nicholas, who takes him on a trip through hell, playing Virgil to his Dante. There he meets past presidents and other politicians, whose punishments (as in the Inferno) conform to their crimes. Made a new man from this experience, the president spends Christmas Day with his black butler, John, and John’S crippled grandson. Though unnamed, this Tiny Tim ironically outsentimentalizes Dickens’: he has a leg amputated; he is black; his parents died in a car accident. In an attempt to save the nation, the president goes on televi13 LINDA HUTCHEON sian to announce: â€Å"The problems of American society will not go away †¦ by invoking Scroogelike attitudes against the poor or saying humbug to the old and to the underprivileged† (158). But the final echoes of the Dickens intertext are ultimately ironic: the president is declared unfit to serve (because of his televised message) and is hospitalized by the business interests which really run the government. None of Dickens’ optimism remains in this bleak satiric vision of the future. Similarly, in Yellow Back Radio Broke-Down, Reed parodically inverts Dostoevsky’s â€Å"Grand Inquisitor† in order to subvert the authority of social, moral, and literary order. No work of the Western humanist tradition seems safe from postmodern intertextual citation and contestation today: in Heller’s God Knows even the sacred texts of the Bible are subject to both validation and demystification. It is significant that the intertexts ofJohn Barth’s LETTERS include not only the British eighteenth-century epistolary novel, Don Quixote, and other European works by H. G. Wells, Mann, and Joyce, but also texts by Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and James Fenimore Cooper. The specifically American past is as much a part of defining â€Å"difference† for contemporary American postmodernism as is the European past. The same parodic mix of authority and transgression, use and abuse characterizes intra-American intertextuality. For instance, Pynchon’s V. and Morrison’s Song of Solomon, in different ways, parody both the structures and theme of the recoverability of history in William Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom!. Similarly, Doctorow’s Lives of the Poets (1984) both installs and subverts Philip Roth’s My Life as a Man and Saul Bellow’s Herzog (Levine 80). The parodic references to the earlier, nineteenth-century or classic American literature are perhaps even more complex, however, since there is a long (and related) tradition of the interaction of fiction and history in, for example, Hawthorne’s use of the conventions of romance to connect the historical past and the writing present. And indeed Hawthorne’s fiction is a familiar postmodern intertext: The Blithedale Romance and Barth’s The Floating Opera share the same moral preoccupation with the consequences of writers taking aesthetic distance from life, but it is the difference in their structural forms (Barth’s novel is more self-consciously metafictional [Christensen 12]) that points the reader to the real irony of the conjunction of the ethical issue. The canonical texts of the American tradition are both undermined and yet drawn upon, for parody is the paradoxical postmodern way of coming to terms with the past.

Comparison of Lao-tzu and Machiavelli Essay - 729 Words

Comparison of Lao-tzu and Machiavelli Lao-tzu and Machiavelli are political philosophers writing in two different lands and two different times. Lao-tzu was an ancient Chinese philosopher from 6th century BC, the author of Tao-te Ching, and Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher who lived 2000 years after Lao-tzu’s time, author of Prince. They are both philosophers but have totally different perspective on how to be a good leader. While both philosopher’s writing is instructive. Lao-tzu’s advice issues from detached view of a universal ruler; Machiavelli’s advice is very personal perhaps demanding. Both philosophers’ idea will not work for today’s world, because that modern world is not as perfect as Lao-tzu described in Tao-te†¦show more content†¦To gun control activists, the issue is about crime and the regulation of the weapons used to commit crimes. In their opinion, law-abiding citizens should have no need for guns, which is similar to Lao-tzu’s idea. Howeve r in opposite, the nations powerful gun lobby, the National Rifle Association, argues that gun control is a violation of freedom and rights to protect themselves, which correspond to Machiavelli’s idea. I think that if American government take either sides, will end up in total chaos. Gun control, which means law-abiding citizens lose their right to protect themselves, and outlaw, will be the only one â€Å"legally† own firearm. But if there are totally no gun control, a five year old boy can bring a gun to school, and shoot at teacher as he please, even thought that he doesn’t know better. Machiavelli wrote â€Å"A prince, therefore, must not have any other object nor any other thought, nor must he take anything as his profession but war, its discipline; because that is the only profession which befits one who commands;† He discussed that a Prince’s duty is war and only war. This lead to the second issue, war, which existed as long as the existence of human kind, as I am writing this essay there are still wars going on all over the world. According toShow MoreRelatedAmerican Government in Contrast to Lao-Tzu and Machiavelli Essay832 Words   |  4 PagesAmerican Government in Contrast to Lao-Tzu and Machiavelli In comparing and contrasting the governmental philosophies of the great thinkers Lao-Tzu and Machiavelli, I have found a pleasant mix of both of their ideas would be the best for America today. Lao-Tzu’s laisse-faire attitude towards the economy, as well as his small scale military is appealing to my liberal side, while Machiavelli’s attitude towards miserliness which causes low taxes appeals to the right wing. These great thinkersRead More The Tao-te Ching by Lao-Tzu and The Prince by Machiavelli Essay1760 Words   |  8 Pagesâ€Å"The Tao-te Ching† by Lao-Tzu and â€Å"The Prince† by Machiavelli Throughout history, it can be argued that at the core of the majority of successful societies has stood an effective allocation of leadership. Accordingly, in their respective works â€Å"The Tao-te Ching† and â€Å"The Prince†, Lao-Tzu and Machiavelli have sought to reach a more complete understanding of this relationship. The theme of political leaders and their intricate relationship with society indeed manifests itself within both textsRead More The Ideal State of Today Essay1789 Words   |  8 Pagesit is not. The teachings of men such as Lao-Tzu and Niccolo Machiavelli include specific details on the traits a leader must posses in order to run and maintain a government where he or she is happy as well as the citizens. However, several of the traits classified as necessary for both a leader and government, by Lao and Machiavelli are undesirable in the path to the ideal state. In his work, â€Å"Thoughts from the Tao-te Ching,† Lao-Tzu discusses the Tao. Lao believes the Tao or â€Å"the way† to be theRead MoreOrganizational Behaviour Analysis28615 Words   |  115 Pagescontroversial, discussion of the nature of warfare, drawing attention to the sometimes ironic cooperative aspects. Clausewitz is the classic Western source on the subject (Rapoport, 1968; Howard Paret, 1993), but it is also illuminating to read what Machiavelli has to say (Wood, 1965). It is currently somewhat fashionable to talk about Sun Tsu, who wrote the Page 8 Please do not attempt to eat these notes. social endeavours. It is also based on a false, and somewhat envious, belief that within

Mission, Vision, And Values Assessment For Fast Food...

MGMT615/Week 2 Assignment: Mission, Vision, and Values Assessment for Fast Food Restaurants Deborah D. Shamlin American Military University Mission, Vision, and Values Assessment for Fast Food Restaurants Every day there is increasing competition in the fast food industry and it is critical that senior executives stay ahead of the competition by ensuring that their company has a clearly articulated and well-developed strategic vision. The first stage of the strategic management process involves â€Å"developing a strategic vision, mission statement, and set of core values† (Thompson, Peteraf, Gamble Strickland, 2015). During this early stage, it is critical that senior company leaders diligently evaluate the current path to determine if they are positioning the company for continued success or if it needs modification. Having a clear mission statement—which defines â€Å"who we are, what we do, and why we are here†Ã¢â‚¬â€helps ensure that employees understand their purpose and can work diligently toward achieving organizational goals (Thompson et al, 2015). A strategic vision lays out where a company would like to be in the future, allowing it to grow beyond current situations and increase profitability. Finally, the values of an organization serve as a guide on acceptable behaviors and traits which should help direct employees toward achieving the mission and strategic vision. This paper will examine the mission, vision and values of three successful and well-establishedShow MoreRelatedThe Box, Inc.1530 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Jack in the Box, Inc. opened its first restaurant in 1951. 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The founders of the Dairy Queen system were men and women whoRead MoreVision And Mission Statement : Papa Johns1545 Words   |  7 Pages1 VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT Papa John’s does not have a vison or mission statement on their company website. Typically a vision and mission statement would be under the â€Å"About Us† section of a website however, Papa John’s has multiple slogans, which include â€Å"Building a foundation of quality† and â€Å"Driven to be the best. Better ingredients. Better Pizza.† While the slogans do give the consumer an idea of what the company is about, they do not clearly tell a person the mission which is the presentRead MoreMcdonald s Impacts Of Globalization And Technology1315 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract McDonald s is a privately owned company that is part of a food industry that is consistently evolving with strategic management and strategic competitiveness at the forefront. McDonald s goal is to be a pioneer in delivering exceptional customer service in meeting the needs of their customers with quality and affordability. This research will present McDonald s impacts of globalization and technology. The industrial organization model will be discussed to determine steps needed to maximizeRead Morehealthy food and its importance1077 Words   |  5 Pagesfactor... Premium2359  Words10  Pages The Perception of Healthy Food at Universiti Kuala Lumpur Pasir Gudang Title: Perception’s of healthy food among UniKL MITEC community Chapter 1.0 : Introduction 1.1 Background of Study It is believed that many does not understood the importance of food pyramid. Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia (2007) describes carbohydrate at the base of the pyramid (6... 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They are †¢ Real and perceived value of opportunity †¢ Risk and returns of opportunity †¢ Competitive environment. 2. Development of the business plan Business plan is the future direction of the business. It makes a clear image about the business. It has to developed in order to achieveRead MoreBackground And History Of Coca Cola1151 Words   |  5 PagesCoca-Cola is the world’s most largest manufacturer of beverages and food who sell more than $24 billion products only in the year 2006 in more than 200 countries. From year 1980-1997, under the president ship of Roberto Goizueta , company growth increases rapidly. Its market grew from 4.3 billion dollar to 180 billion dollar’s. But after his death in 1997, the company growth declined under 115 billion. It needs a big idea to transform its growth to upper level. 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A Research Study On Relational Database Technology

Abstract. In this report I will introduce the Memcached technology and provide more details about it. In addition, I will explain how it works and how it differs than relational database technology. Furthermore, I will use the finding of the paper â€Å"Performance Evaluation of a Clustered Memcached† to present how Memcached can improve the performance of the web applications. The paper that I did study is about a simulation project of using three different architectures of Memcached. The simulation results will monitor the CPU and RAM usability of all the nodes in these three architectures. I will explain the results and will discuss the findings of their results. The relational database technology dominated the web applications for more than 30 years. This technology is able to handle limited load to the database. However, the internet technologies and the advents of the smart phones make the web applications to be accessible by many users and from any location that is covered by the internet connectivity. In addition, currently, the web data in the internet is dominated by the social networking and social media applications which include: Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram and others. This kind of web applications will likely be prone to the high load of the database layer. As a result, it was not possible for the relational database technology to handle the database load for such applications. Even scaling out the application servers will not solve the database loadShow MoreRelatedRelational Databases For An Efficient Data Management And Retrieval Of Data1032 Words   |  5 Pagesan issue due to the growing need in business and academia . To resolve these issues a number of databases models have been created. 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End of The Life Care

Question: Discuss about the End of Life Care ? Answer : Introducation: Appropriate palliative care requires effective nursing skills and care management to relief the people from pain and provides the best quality of care in their end of life stage. It is a specialized type of medical care that is provided to the people suffering from serious illness. This kind of end of life care is focused to relief the person from the symptoms as well as from the prevailing stress. The main goal of end of life care is to improve the quality of life and care for the patients and their families (Buck et al., 2015). There are several care requirements needed for the people in palliation like management of pain, the spiritual needs, communication needs and advanced care directive. There is also requirement of skilled nursing care that helps to provide symptom management, spiritual support and psychosocial needs in collaboration with the palliative care team. However, the nurses encounter several issues while delivering the end of life care to the people like patients wis hes, nurses grief, pain management and knowledge treatment. The following essay involves the care requirements during the end of life care and the nursing issues that arises during palliation. In an acute setting, the end of life care for a dying patient requires specific care requirements. The pain management, the patients spiritual and communication needs of the patient and advanced care directives. Advanced care requirements are needed for the dying patients to improve their quality of life and relief pain. The man focus of care involves the relief of the patient from their symptoms and stress that arises due to the serious illness. Care requirements not only involves pain but also takes into account the depression, anxiety, difficulty in sleeping and other factors that causes distress in the dying patient (Lamba et al., 2014). The pain management is an important need in the dying patients during the life of care. They suffer from severe illness that involves pain to a large extent. The patients often express their pain and it is the prime assessor of pain. It is greatly affected by emotional context as it is a complex subjective phenomenon (Kelley Morrison, 2015). The management of pain is necessary as the patients want to live their last few days or months completely pain-free. The nurses have the duty to offer the best quality of care to the dying patients by managing their pain as they suffer from unanticipated illness. As the patient is in their end stage, their spiritual and psychosocial needs should be addressed. Under The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA), the competency standards states that the nurse should fulfill the spiritual needs of the patients that would help them to gather strength to life the rest of their last days as a normal person (Edmonds, Cashin Heartfield, 2016). The patients religious beliefs, behavior and sentiments needs to be addressed by the nurses as their coping style, behavior and attitude has an association with the reactions during the stressful life events. It also helps to assess ones inner being and meet the needs of the patient differently. Communication needs are also important to address in a dying patient due the end of life care. It is often challenging for the nurses to communicate with the patients who are dying. The nurses need to understand the essential needs of the patients through effective communication. The nurses need to approach the patient with utmost care and sensitivity so that they feel motivated and encouraged to express their needs during the last days of their life (Jacob, McKenna DAmore, 2016). The understanding of the non-verbal communication is also important as a dying patient will not be able to express their needs verbally. The nurses need to understand the gestures and facial expression of the patient in assessing their pain and other essential requirements. It helps to establish the patients priorities and in making informed consents. Moreover, the communication needs are important for the assessment of anxiety or distress in the patients. Advance care directives are also essential care requirements for the dying patients. It is a model that helps to understand the wishes and priorities of a dying patient in an acute setting. It is a legal document that encompasses the principle of autonomy during the palliative care (Best Fredericks, 2014). This legal document is important as it expresses the desire of the patient in accordance to the medical treatments. This is important in instances when the patient is unable to take decisions of their own during palliation. As it has great impact on the patients and their families, the advanced care directives are important care requirements for the dying patients. The nurses play the most crucial role in delivering the end of life care to the dying patients. The end of life nursing care encompasses many important aspects like assisting patients, pain management and the patients families during the dying process, culture sensitive practices and in ethical decision making (Cherry Jacob, 2016). In delivering the end of life care, the nurses face many issues like inability to recognize a dying patient, patient and family wishes being supported and information and support provided to patients and family. It also involves the nurses grief while taking care of the patients, knowledge of treatment, pain management and ethical decision making by the nurses. The inability to recognize a dying patient is an issue faced by the nurses. At times, the nurses are not able to recognize the time of the dying patient as it is inevitable in nature. The nurses might not be able to understand the exact moment of death of the patients. As the patient in palliation is about to die, the nurses need to assess and know the patients wishes and priorities (Urden, Stacy Lough, 2017). The nurses need to be careful in supporting the patient and their family wishes that might interfere with their professional code of conduct. Moreover, information and support should also be given to the patient and the family about the end of life care plan and treatment. As the nurses are dealing with dying patients, they are subjected to grief and distress. In the competency skills under the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA), it is stated that the nurses have the duty to provide the best quality of care within their professional limits (Malloy et al., 2014). T hey need to control their emotions and perform their end of life care nursing. There are other issues like knowledge of treatment, pain management and in making ethical decisions for the patients. Ethical decision making is the most crucial issue for nurses in delivering end of life care. Nurses need to assess physical, spiritual and psychosocial needs of the patients and also working in accordance with the standards of care and ethical code of conduct. The nurses are restricted to their profession in making ethical decisions for the best of the patients needs and in inhibiting their own style of administration (Lazenby et al., 2016). Palliative care involves crucial end of life nursing in fulfilling the needs of the terminally patients. There many care requirements needed for the patients like pain management, fulfilling of the spiritual, physical and psychosocial needs, advanced directive care and communication needs that involve verbal and non-verbal communication. However, in delivering the best quality of care to improve their lives, the nurses face many issues. The nurses own grief, ethical decision making, inability to recognize a dying patient, proper support to the patients and their families, and knowledge of treatment are some of the issues faced by the nurses in providing the best quality of life to the dying patients. Therefore, delivery of palliative care is crucial for the nurses. References Best, O., Fredericks, B. (2014).Yatdjuligin: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander nursing and midwifery care. Cambridge University Press. Buck, H. G., Mogle, J., Riegel, B., McMillan, S., Bakitas, M. (2015). Exploring the relationship of patient and informal caregiver characteristics with heart failure self-care using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model: Implications for outpatient palliative care.Journal of palliative medicine,18(12), 1026-1032. Cherry, B., Jacob, S. R. (2016).Contemporary nursing: Issues, trends, management. Elsevier Health Sciences. Edmonds, L., Cashin, A., Heartfield, M. (2016). Comparison of Australian specialty nurse standards with registered nurse standards.International nursing review. Jacob, E. R., McKenna, L., DAmore, A. (2016). Role expectations of different levels of nurse on graduation: A mixed methods approach.Collegian. Kelley, A. S., Morrison, R. S. (2015). Palliative care for the seriously ill.New England Journal of Medicine,373(8), 747-755. Lamba, S., DeSandre, P. L., Todd, K. H., Bryant, E. N., Chan, G. K., Grudzen, C. R., ... Quest, T. E. (2014). Integration of palliative care into emergency medicine: the Improving Palliative Care in Emergency Medicine (IPAL-EM) collaboration.The Journal of emergency medicine,46(2), 264-270. Lazenby, M., Sebego, M., Swart, N. C., Lopez, L., Peterson, K. (2016). Symptom burden and functional dependencies among cancer patients in Botswana suggest a need for palliative care nursing.Cancer nursing,39(1), E29-E38. Malloy, P., Paice, J., Coyle, N., Coyne, P., Smith, T., Ferrell, B. (2014). Promoting palliative care worldwide through international nursing education.Journal of Transcultural Nursing,25(4), 410-417. Urden, L. D., Stacy, K. M., Lough, M. E. (2017).Critical care nursing: diagnosis and management. Elsevier Health Sciences.

What Motivates Me To Stay Employed As A Police Officer an Example of the Topic Personal Essays by

What Motivates Me To Stay Employed As A Police Officer In Northern Ireland? In the words of a great man, motivation is a personal drive with you the driver. This was why a speaker once said People often say that motivation doesn't last. Well, neither does bathing - that's why we recommend it daily. The choice of life we want to live and be remembered for is our choice, nobody can make it choice for us. Need essay sample on "What Motivates Me To Stay Employed As A Police Officer In Northern Ireland?" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Northern Island is part of the British Empire and was defined by the Government of Ireland Act, 1920. The population was estimated as being 1,710,300 on 30 June 2004.its crime rate is relatively low compared to other parts of the Empire. Although it has witnessed many blood birth in recent times. The Police Service of Northern Island was established through the setting up of an Independent Commission who reached an agreement in Belfast on the 10th of April 1998. Their report known the pattern report was published in 1999, with 179 recommendations about setting up a standard policing in Northern Island. By, November 2000, the police service of northern island was formed and it went straight into action immediately. Like most successful companies have developed several attractive packages to attract workers, service in the Police is to your community and humanity. The Northern Island Police is unique although with a very new, it was like an opportunity has been waiting for, working is a thing of pride. The following motivates me to work in this noble service. Good Working Environment: Productivity starts from a settled mind. The working environment at the northern island has give me room to grow rapidly than most of my contemporary in other parts of United Kingdom. Also, the good environment of Northern Island has provided us with affordable housing and a reduced crime rate. Honour and Prestige In Northern Island, being a Police Officer goes along with honour and pride. Nothing is more motivating when people appreciate what you do. The person in Northern Island appreciates the Police and they always cooperated when ever the need arises. Low Crime Rate Northern Island is an island with an estimated population of population of 1,710,300 as at 2004. This incidentally affected the crime rate witnessed in the region. The Police have been able to effectively discharge their responsibility of providing adequate security to the people. Vibrant Economic Activity. The economic activities of the region are young and full of potential. This has helped me as a Police office to reduce my spending giving room for savings. Different Cultural Diversity: as a police offer in northern island, I have been able to study the behavior of many non British citizen doing business in Northern Island. In conclusion, being a part of the first set of the Police Service of Northern Island is enough motivation. It is a service to my Nation and people. Thanks Reference: The Police Service of Northern Island webpage. The Guardian Newspaper webpage.